Psychometric assessment Essay

Certain people tend to be more obedient than others. Individuals who have the tendency to adopt a submissive, uncritical attitude toward authority figures – authoritarian submission (Adorno, 1950) tends to perform tasks when demanded. Also, people with an external locus of control (a sense that fate rules their life rather than their own actions) tend to be more obedient. However, despite the popular myth that women are more submissive, women and men are relatively equal in the degree to which they will obey demands (Eagly & Carli, 1981). Dehumanisation or deindividuation is the loss of the sense of individual identity and control over our behaviour. Sensory overload, arousal, anonymity, and reduced self awareness are key factors which loosen inhibitions and thus uncharacteristic behaviour is not inline with usual internal standards. According to deindividuation theory, the psychological state of deindividuation is aroused when individuals join crowds or large groups. The state is characterized by diminished awareness of self and individuality. This in turn reduces an individual’s self-restraint and normative regulation of behaviour. In social psychology, deindividuation is a major theory of group behaviour: it provides an explanation of collective behaviour of violent crowds, mindless hooligans, and the lynch mob. In addition, deindividuation has been associated with other social phenomena such as genocide, stereotyping, and disinhibition in other settings such as computer-mediated communication. Several influential studies were conducted to illustrate the force of deindividuation. For example, Zimbardo (1969) carried out a study that inspired much subsequent deindividuation research. In this study, participants were rendered anonymous by clothing them in oversized lab coats and hoods, compared with normal clothes and name tags in the control condition. The participants’ task was to shock a confederate in a situation similar to the classic Milgram studies on obedience. In a first experiment using groups of female students, Zimbardo demonstrated that anonymous participants shocked longer (and therefore more painfully) than identifiable participants, in confirmation of his theory. Another area of controversy in psychology is the area of psychometric testing, which aim to make important decisions affecting individuals and society. Tests are used in a variety of settings to aid selection in education and work and for diagnosis for those with learning and psychological problems. Ability tests were amongst the first psychometric tests to be developed, and controversy has surrounded their use since. Binet and Simon (1905) were commissioned by the French government to find a method to differentiate between children who were intellectually normal and those who were inferior. The purpose was to put the latter into special schools where they would receive more individual attention. In this way the disruption they caused in the education of intellectually normal children could be avoided. This led to the development of the Binet-Simon Scale, and constituted a revolutionary approach to the assessment of individual mental ability. Revisions to the Binet-Simon Scale resulted in the concept of ‘mental age’, an easily understandable concept which significantly increased the popularity of ability testing. Further developments of the tests produced the concept of intelligence quotient (IQ) and resulted in one of the currently most widely used tests, the Stanford Binet Scale. Most intelligence tests measure the general reasoning ability that is involved in many different types of problem solving behaviour. Older types of tests referred to this intelligence factor as general ability, whereas more recent tests have tended to divide the general ability into fluid intelligence (innate and not particularly influenced by one’s environment) and crystallised intelligence (underlying fluid intelligence that is a product of environmental experiences. In recent years, the introduction of the ‘eleven plus’ exam, which is largely compiled of IQ tests, was used to distinguish those who would proceed to grammar school and those who would be relegated to academically inferior secondary schools. Research into the psychometric assessment of intelligence has been the focus of many eminent psychologists including Spearmen, Burt, Eysenck, and Cattell. The latter two also went on further to develop (separate) personality tests, Cattell’s 16PF in 1970, and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) in 1975. These involve analysing a series of short â€Å"yes/no† questions in an attempt to decipher the nature and character of the person answering them. Today, personality assessments are mainly used in clinical settings, with their use in occupational settings increasing. They may also be used in educational settings in assessing individuals with learning problems and are still widely used and developed within academic and research settings. Personality tests are also widely used today within the work environment, perhaps for deciding whether to employ someone or not, or even to decide who gets made redundant. On the whole, psychometric tests have acceptable validity and therefore make them less prone to error than other types of assessment. The interpretation of psychometric data requires the use of ‘norms’, against which the scores of a particular individual can be compared. Psychometric assessments tend to be the only measures for which norms are available. Psychometric tests are fairly short and therefore time and cost efficient. Many are group tests, and so can be given to a number of people at the same time. In fact the development of computer programmes concerned with psychometric testing means that tests can be administered and scored by a computer, enabling results to be made available quickly and can form the basis of a discussion. Personality tests are particularly cost efficient as they prevent money being wasted on training unsuitable personnel. However, there can be an undue reliance on the results of psychometric tests. Simply discovering that a person has an aptitude for a particular occupation does not guarantee that they will be successful at that job. The mystique of psychometric test results means that they are frequently not discussed with those who complete them. In this sense there is a failure to use psychological testing humanely. Test scores can also be misused. The results of tests should not be used to withhold educational or occupational opportunities from those who may perform less well on tests of ability due to factors that have little to do with intelligence. In any instance, the results can be faked by the participant to influence the results in their favour, and so can be unknowingly misinterpreted anyway. Because of the cheapness and predictive success of many psychometric tests, there may be a failure to use other important information. Psychometric test results should ideally be used alongside other reliable information about a person, otherwise they may wrongly stereotype an individual. Furthermore, there are many cultural and sub-cultural issues that can arise when measuring IQ, which causes much controversy. At the extreme, IQ tests were used to keep out certain immigrant groups from the United States during the 1920’s. Jenson (1969) suggested that genetic differences were the cause of consistently lower IQ scores observed in non white racial groups. Recent controversies relate to the systematic differences attained by different groups in society. Critics say these are the results of bias in test items. Typical examples relate to previously learned information and items using verbal information, typically English, which require reading and writing. Even when tests are translated to the native language of the participants, questions are still raised over the cultural equivalence of certain items (Zindi, 1994). Even tests which explicitly attempt to be culture fair have been questioned. The Raven’s Progressive Matrices test showed that the performance of Asian immigrants has been found to improve over a five year period by an average of 15-20 points, which demonstrates that minorities will be disadvantaged in taking them until they learn different ways of approaching them (Roth, 1990). In 1972, Williams produced the Black Intelligent Test of Cultural Homogeneity (BITCH) in an attempt to highlight cultural biases in test items, which was heavily loaded towards black minorities. Using this test, it is black people who tend to score higher than whites. Particularly in IQ tests that use visual cues, participants may misinterpret an action, and their own cultural biases produce expectations which can alter what they ‘see’. They may use methods derived from an alien culture (emics/etics) and may have a hostile reception which will bias their observations. Observations are made of a sample and may not be typical of the whole culture being studies. It is also wrong to imagine a culture as being a homogenous group of people; differences within a culture may be as large as those between cultures.

Professional Identity Essay

Angelle Hobbs Joanna is a 16-year-old eleventh grader, the oldest of four children. Her best friend had died suddenly of leukemia the previous year. Presently, Joanna’s grades have begun to drop and she cuts class. She feels she should have done more to help her best friend. Joanna’s mother has been contacted for a parent conference, but she works two jobs to financially support her children. Joanna’s homeroom teacher is very concern and refers her to the school counselor. This heartbreaking event has had tremendous implications on Joanna. I trust that an experience, as such, leads someone to initially choose counseling as a profession. Counseling entails a provision of assistance and guidance sessions, provided by a trained professional who assists in resolving personal conflicts, social/emotional, or psychological difficulties. Remley and Herlihy, authors of Ethics, Legal, and Professional Issues in Counseling, provide a constructive framework for an aspirant counselor who seeks to develop a professional identity in the counseling profession, functioning through the acts of integrity, discernment, acceptance of emotion, self-awareness, and interdependence within the community. If you’re like most counselors, you want to actively promote the mental health and wellness of the client, provide compassion, aid in the development of their life-enhancing qualities, and advocate in behalf of the client and the profession. Comparably, various mental health professions possess interchangeable objectives. Then, what distinguishes counseling from other mental health professions? Often, counselors describe themselves as professional â€Å"skilled helpers† – helping others resolve difficult issues, while moving towards productive decisions in a non-judgmental atmosphere. They are professionals to the degree that they have mastered the requisite knowledge base, developed competencies in the required skills, and adhere to the values and ethics of the American Counseling Association and their state’s code of conduct. Counseling involves an establishment of collaboration with the client and a voluntary guidance in decision-making, leading towards a successful resolution of problems deemed significant. In other words, counseling can establish self-empowerment, self-awareness, self-discovery, and self-esteem. What comes to mind when I hear the term counselors? Counseling professionals promote accurate historical information about the development of counseling theories, philosophies, advocacy, blending of research and evidence-based practice that have influenced its growth. Effective counselors employ cross-cultural skills to make their interactions with clients more culturally relevant. They possess ethnographic interviewing skills that elicit minorities’ views (worldview) of problems and situational contexts from their cultural perspective. In other words, counselors understand the client from the client’s frame of reference. Additionally, counselors not only apply theoretical principles that guide therapeutic interventions, but offer motivation to effectively strengthen the helping process. They move the client’s distorted world view to healthy thinking and dysfunctional actions to healthy behaviors, utilizing direct and indirect approaches. They help clients challenge themselves to develop new perspectives and make connections that may be missing, while changing their internal and external behaviors. Counselors must adhere to the code of ethics and standards associated with their respective certifications and licenses. As well, counselors must possess high physical and emotional energy to handle the array of problems that they address. Most importantly, they demonstrate accountability, sensitivity and awareness of cultural implications. Ethically speaking, psychologists study mental processes and human behavior by observing, interpreting, and recording how people and other animals relate to one another and the environment. To do this, psychologists often look for patterns that will help them understand and predict behavior using scientific methods, principles, or procedures to test their ideas. Through such research studies, psychologists have learned much that can help increase understanding between individuals, groups, organizations, institutions, nations, and cultures. Psychologists formulate theories, or hypotheses, which are possible explanations for what they observe. But unlike other social science disciplines, psychologists often concentrate on individual behavior and, specifically, in the beliefs and feelings that influence a person’s actions. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work. Similar to the counseling profession, social workers address the prevalence of inequity, discrimination, violations of human rights, and other forms of social injustice compromising and adversely affecting the well-being of society. However, social workers establish linkages between people and societal resources to further social functioning and enhance the quality of life in an ever-changing society, develop cooperative networks within the institutional resource system, and encourage an information exchange in those institutional systems in which both problems and resources opportunities are produced. Equally, social workers support a proactive position in regard to social and economic policy development, to prevent problems for individuals and society from occurring. My personal qualities make a difference in my ability to work effectively with others. Among these essential personal qualities are genuineness, responsibility, honesty, openness, humility, concern, and optimism. During my overall academic attainment, I was effectively engaged as a reflective practitioner, dedicating my life to serving children and diverse families with a strong focus on family dynamics, social interactions affecting the unity of families, and the welfare of the community. I believe these qualities are indispensable for establishing rapport and building relationships with colleagues and clients, while enhancing my competence as a professional school counselor. In preparation to becoming a culturally, competent school counselor, I am developing an awareness of cultural sensitivity, with the understanding of worldviews of culturally diverse groups, development of culturally appropriate intervention strategies, personal responsibility, accountability, resourcefulness, subject area expertise, and a continuation of professionalism. I am positive that I will provide a professional and structured process intended to meet an individual’s counseling needs. I aim to effectively intervene systemically and personally on behalf of students. From a novice school counselor viewpoint, in the future, I believe that my dedication to the profession, perseverance through difficult tasks, and diligence in my work will be three key indicators of my success in the counseling profession. Above all, I have a vision based on the ideal of deep appreciation and desire to be a part of a field that develops young people into productive citizens of the community with the knowledge, attitudes, and skills essential to succeed as life-long learners in a global environment. One child’s life messed up by lack of direction early in life, is one too many in the eyes of a prospective counselor in me, Ms. Angelle M. Hobbs.

Effects of Early Marriage Essay

Mark and Jane got married eight years ago. They have two young children. Their initial love and attraction has turned into constant bickering and argument. They now realize how different they are from each other. Every interchange seems to be a battle and is affecting every aspect of their lives. They wonder what happened to the love and affection they felt towards each other at the beginning of their relationship. They have been arguing about money, and how to spend it. Mark thinks his hard work is not appreciated. Jane feels overburdened with taking care of the children, her part-time work and taking care of the most of household duties. They each feel the other is not contributing enough. They do not want to give up on their marriage, and have heard that mediation can be effective in working through the practical problems they face. They hope by learning to appreciate each other’s efforts their love for each other will start to grow again. They have tried individual therapy, marital counseling, and group therapy, without results. The first few years of a marriage are a very intense period of adjustment. It’s very common for the couple to learn differences about each other and encounter extreme bouts of negativity that they never imagined possible. A newly married couple (and any married couple, for that matter) should try anything at their disposal. Sometimes marriage counseling does not work. It does not mean that the marriage is over or that the counseling was insufficient or even that marriage counseling may not work at a future time. Couples need to try different things at different times in order to break the log jam of disillusionment. Marital Mediation or other professional support may help break the impasse. The mediator will explain to Mark and Jane that, just like a new hobby, learning how to be married is a learnable skill. The mediator will teach them conflict resolution skills that they can begin to practice at home. Things can improve at home, and Mark and Jane can continue to work on (and enjoy) their marriage. They might even try counseling again (perhaps with a different therapist), and may find that they are ready to gain insight from it.

Juvenile Justice Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Juvenile Justice - Coursework Example Due to this difference in opinion, people has not yet arrived to the real definition of this kind of behavior as they do not understand it better. Some theorists gave out their opinion concerning this matter of delinquency saying that one of the major factors that they think formed the basis for delinquency was a combination of both peer and the socio-economic conditions. (b) Did it help make real some of the issues addressed in our text? A sample test or experiment was carried out by some of the two individuals whose interests were aimed at finding the real cause of delinquency because they found it more common in children. In their study or experiment, they used over 338 children of which they found out that there were three causes of delinquency, one being the relationship between the children and their parents. This was termed as one of the key cause because they realized that most of the parents do not punish their children even if they commit a serious offence or mistake. Secon dly, is the peer pressure that they define as involvement in bad companies that end up misleading some of the youths. The kind of punishment mentioned in the first cause result does not necessarily mean that it is the main cause but just an action that can help in controlling delinquency. (c) Are you hopeful for the next generation of young people? The control statuses expected of parents are not just to punish but also to reward and appreciate any good thing done by our children. Juvenile as one of the issues of concern in today’s world, has various definitions depend on how one understands it. This is a matter of concern because it does not affect the adults but children who are believed to be the leaders of tomorrow. This behavior is not always common on adult but in some rare cases. Various experts concerning the issue gave out various methods but all fell in vain, as people did not still know the real meaning of delinquency and some of the effects that were associated wi th it. A large number that fall victim to this kind of behavior are children who are still under the umbrella of their parents. This is one of the reasons as to why a large amount of victims comes out from this bracket of children. Children are still weak in a number of ways for they do not also understand the real meaning of life and some of its aspects which could be either negative or positive. Wong is also one of the researchers concerning this issue, gave out his results that delinquency is brought about by so many things or activities that one involve himself in. He says that the basis of this kind of behavior is idleness or lack of a constructive work that can keep one busy. He also defines some of the human activities and relates them to this kind of behavior. As per his perception and finding, there are long term activities that one may involve himself in and those that are referred to as short term activities. The short term activities are those that are always of benefit to the person who involves in it. One of these short term activities is smoking. From this example, Wong also says that those who involve in long term activities do not always fall victims to delinquency as they are focused and have dreams of which they intend to realize in life. In very many nations, this issue is always a big problem as they did not have ideal ways of dealing with or curbing this

Annotated bibliography Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Annotated bibliography - Research Paper Example The dimension which has been focused in this article is merely the framework on which this software works. The author of the article has used a literature review approach to help understanding the middleware approach to data integration. Also, readers will find this source credible because the author is from the field of network architecture. 3. Bramley, R., Chiu, K., Devadithya, T., Gupta, N., Hart, C., & Huffman, J. (2006). Instrument Monitoring, Data Sharing, and Archiving Using Common Instrument Middleware Architecture (CIMA). J. Chem. Inf. Model, 46(3), 1017–1025. The group of authors have conducted a vey systematic study which involves discussion based upon instrument monitoring which is undertaken with the help of middleware architecture. Also, the authors have noted that with the help of middleware architecture, software developers can easily conduct data sharing by software applications. Middlewae architecture is the simplest yet systematic model that can help software developers design software applicationsfor functions such as instrumet monitory, data sharing etc. The article is effective in terms of evaluating the usage of middleware in reinventing the software applications. The authors have claimed that with the aid of data integration architecture such as middleware, it is easier to transpose the updated versions of applications. The authors have allowed the readers to use the article as a reference to find out solutions for application in context. This article can be used as the most relevant source for the title selected for the research paper. The article is about the usage of middleware for the purpose of data processing. Information sharing and data integration for caches has been noted as one of the most complex aspect in software development. Thus, the authors of the articles help the readers to understand the claim that middleware can simultaneously be used for service co-ordination and data processing. Many system

What historical events and issues impact contemporary political Essay

What historical events and issues impact contemporary political developments among Native Americans communities in North and South America - Essay Example The Native Americans were forced into ways of life that were common amongst those to the east. This new way of life changed the way Native Americans perceived the new comers and their experiences were not necessarily positive. Some specific historical events that impacted the Native Americans were the forcing of the Cherokee Indians to the west of North America. This event is also known as the trail of tears. â€Å"The trail of tears occurred in 1838†. (Monkeyshines 1999) This is called the trail of tears because the heartache endured by the Native Americans on their journey to the land they were forced to live in. Since the Native Americans were forced to live a way they were not accustomed to this has created a resistance that is seen to this day. â€Å"The Native Americans have trouble showing trust in political figures and this impacts any political advancement.†(Natives 2011) Historical events and issues amongst different types of peoples that consisted of negative events and issues are easily carried into modern day. These issues are carried amongst future generations and put a damper on developments. It is hard for the Native Americans to develop politically when they have so much heartache in their history. Brave Heart, Maria Yellow Horse, Josephine Chase, Jennifer Elkins, and Deborah B. Altschul. 2011. "Historical Trauma Among Indigenous Peoples of the Americas: Concepts, Research, and Clinical Considerations." Journal Of Psychoactive Drugs 43, no. 4: 282-290. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed March 23,

Psychological Disorders and Therapy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Psychological Disorders and Therapy - Essay Example PTSD symptoms can be clustered into intrusive symptoms – flashbacks reliving traumatic experiences, avoidant symptoms – withdrawal from possible triggers (place, event, people) of traumatic experiences, and hyperarousal – the feeling of being threatened always occurring as insomnia, irritability, extreme startle response. Nevertheless, PTSD is curable. Effective treatment to PTSD is a combination of psychoanalysis – a therapy that deals with the patient’s unconscious and repressed memories, and drug therapy. SSRIs are the first line of medication approved by the US FDA as it was proven effective to decrease anxiety, depression, and panic reducing aggression, impulsivity, and suicidal thoughts in patients. a. Features: PTSD is a complex disorder, classified as anxiety disorder (Post-traumatic Stress Disorder par.1) or emotional disorder (Dryden-Edwards 1). DSM-IV-TR described it a â€Å"normal reaction to abnormal events† (qtd. in Post-traumatic Stress Disorder par.1), wherein terribly threatening experiences like rape, military combat, torture, genocide, extreme disasters, etc. have disrupted the patient’s memory, emotional reactions, mental processes, and nervous system (PTSD par.1-2; Dryden-Edwards 1), making PTSD a unique psychiatric disorder, since its diagnosis depends on factor/s outside the victim – a deviance from psychiatry’s general emphasis on factors internal to individuals (PTSD par.2). b. Symptoms: DSM-IV-TR identified six criteria symptomatic of PTSD: (1) Traumatic stressor – patient’s exposure to life-threatening horrifying experiences; (2) Intrusive symptoms – flashbacks reliving traumatic experiences; (3) Avoidant symptoms – withdrawal from possible triggers (place, event, people) of traumatic experiences; (4) Hyperarousal – a threatened feeling always occurring as insomnia, irritability, extreme startle response; (5) Symptom duration – one month